Job Characteristics Model-An Internalized Experience

Classic economic theory, based as it is on an inadequate theory of human motivation, could be revolutionized by accepting the reality of higher human needs, including the impulse to self actualization and the love for the highest values.-Abraham Maslow

According to Maslow the concept of motivation entails the idea that higher human needs should spark a productive evolution. Those who are internally motivated are more likely to accomplish more than those who rewarded only by externalized rewards. Through job characteristics model it is possible to theorize how employers can make adjustments that encourage higher levels of work effort and development.

The job characteristics model seeks to explain how jobs can be designed to encourage intrinsic motivation Organizational Behavior researchers Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham tried to create higher levels of performance through redesigning jobs (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009). Their goal was to create higher psychologically motivating states through specific job adjustments that lend to higher levels of performance. 

Accordingly, through the job characteristics model it is believed that task identification leads to higher levels of motivation. This identification occurs when workers identify with the tasks and believe them to be both worthwhile as well as part of their identity within their work function. Higher levels of task identity lead to higher levels of intrinsic motivation. 

When employees feel their work is meaningful this encourages task-specific motivation and further encourages the attainment of work goals (Barrick, Mount, & Li, 2013). It is this sense of purpose and contribution that encourages beneficial psychological states within workers. The higher their positive psychological emotions and feelings the more motivated they will be to improve upon their effort and attainment of goals. 

Meaningfulness comes from the following concepts (Hackman & Oldham, 1980):

-Skill Variety: Variety of skills being used to complete tasks.

-Task identity: The ability to take ownership over a specific part of a task they can claim as their work.

-Task Significance: The extent to which the task influences and helps others.

These three aspects are further enhanced by Autonomy and Feedback. Autonomy helps a person to feel as though they have the freedom to determine the scheduling and manner of work being conducted. Feedback allows a person to gauge their performance through the accurate feedback of others. Employees who master certain skills eventually want to make decisions on those tasks which lead to higher levels of innovative improvement. 

Intrinsic motivation can be seen influenced by the three positive psychological traits of meaningfulness, responsibility and knowledge (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Employees feel their work is meaningful; they experience responsibility for the outcomes; and enjoy gaining knowledge about the work and its outcomes. When these three aspects are together employees will have positive feelings that further their motivation do better work. 

Employees who are externally motivated will be dependent on financial and social benefits related to their work status. If they do not find inherent personalized value in their work they will be focused primarily on externalized results. Externally motivated employees will lack task commitment and may give up when such external rewards are not forthcoming. 

Employers have a natural benefit in encouraging employees to develop internal motivation. Sometimes it is this feeling that a job done well is the best feeling in the world. Those who are externally motivated used externalized feedback to maintain their motivation. Without that motivation they will lose much of their work steam. Most likely people have a mixture of internal and external motivational factors that keep them going each day. 

Research has shown that internally motivated people enjoy their work more often and develop further than externally motivated members. Even without the social praise and benefits coming from others they keep learning, working, improving and developing day in and day out.  These are the type of employees that will help an organization through tough times even when they have no reason to do so other than the sheer satisfaction of doing so. If employers can develop and encourage this motivation through job design and environmental adjustments they have a strong incentive to do so.

Barrick, M., Mount, M. & Li, N. (2013). The theory and purposeful work behavior: the role of personality higher-order goals, and job characteristics. Academy of Management Review, 38 (1). 

Hackman, J. & Oldham, G. (1980). Work Design. NJ. Pearson Education.

Kinicki, A. & Kreitner, R. (2009). Organizational Behavior: Key concepts, skills & practices (fourth edition). McGraw-Hill Company.

Vervet Monkeys Teach Us About Social Learning

Recent research on monkeys that have the capacity to socially learn from each other is an interesting concept in behavioral emulation that helps to define how societies operate. Like humans, it would appear that these monkeys learn to adapt to social cues in order to both learn and socially connect with their tribal members. 

The study published in the journal Science helps show how monkeys taught to eat particular colors of corn changed their preferences when socializing with monkeys taught to prefer a different color. A Vervet Monkey that moved from one group to another watched the other monkeys to determine what food choices they should make. 

Erica van de Waal, a research leader from the University of Saint Andrews, indicated that baby monkeys only ate what their mothers ate and ignored other colors. Dominant males almost never tried other non-preferred colors and when entering groups with non dominant males continued to eat their learned color. Only less dominant monkeys tried different colors when the preferred color was not available.

It would seem that such behavior would have an advantage for group cohesion and protection. As monkeys copy each other they develop certain rules that allow them to live with and exist with each other. All social creatures have and maintain these rules in order to define their place in the hierarchical order as well as give a methodology to survival (i.e. colored corn as being preferred).

It is also be possible that such behavior encourages survival through the emulation of alpha males. As the alpha males rise to the top of the tribe by being the most athletically dominant, other monkeys begin to copy such behavior. In the animal kingdom this is an easy order that can be defined through conflict and challenges. With humans it takes complex paths that are difficult to grasp as adults are dissuaded from physical conflicts-It becomes an intellectual game.

It can also help to highlight the concept that leaders give preferences that others begin to copy and follow. They reinforce these preferences on each other over time through social adherence. Those who enter a tribe must learn the rules in order to have the social benefits and natural protections that are provided from a particular society. To not follow the dominant members or those that copy them and eat their own preferred color may result in a lessening of status and potential fewer mate selection opportunities.

The research helps support the concept that all societies have structure and rules. These rules don't always make sense as some colors (i.e. products) that were taught to be discouraged were actually healthy in the monkey study. Yet the tribal members continued to prefer specific colors indifferent to quality or benefit. A monkey that picked up the discouraged colors might be the smartest member as it would not need to compete for food but would certainly suffer the social consequences of doing so-that is until the environment changed.

It would be nice to see this study conducted again by changing some variables such as limiting the amount of food available or hiding preferred colors to make them more difficult to find. Would the monkeys fight over the preferred colors when they were found? Would they change and adapt their preferences or does scarcity raise its value? Which factor is stronger---social structure or preferred color gratification?

Which color do you prefer? Oh! We don't do that!

 Researchers: Dr Erica van de Waal of University of St. Andrews, Andrew Whiten of University of St. Andrews, Christele Borgeaud of University of Neuchatel. 

 Further Reading:

The New York Times

Science Daily

Book Review: The Assessment of Doctoral Education

The book The Assessment of Doctoral Education by Peggy Maki and Nancy Borkowski offers insight into the modern Doctoral education and common methods of assessment and evaluation. The work moves into significant detail on a number of topics that include New Models of Assessment of Doctoral Programs and Emerging Assessment of Student Learning. Through this book, readers should come to understand the overall assessment process and growing trends in the modern educational process. 

The book lists the following trends administrators should expect:

-Increase in accountability through accreditation process, assessment and state money, and assessment responsibilities.

-Increase in diversification of education through assessment of individual students, core-competencies, and degree integrity.

-Student-centered learning that focuses on value-added, technology incorporation, and campus cultural assessments. 

The book indicates that there will be a number of difficulties associated with assessment and change. Some of the difficulties will be to change college culture. Many state universities have traditions, union rules, and other issues that may make it difficult to change people’s minds about assessment.  Changing culture can be difficult and requires a concerted effort from all of the parties involved. 

One of the largest criteria that universities will need to focus on is student readiness to take positions in their chosen fields. All of the assessments seem to focus in at least a tertiary way on this overall concept. How colleges do this is more of an open question. A broad education has its advantages in terms of opening students to new experiences and understandings while focused career education is more efficient but can leave students limited in their general knowledge for periods when a career change is needed. 

The book is well researched and comes with a host of citations and references. The work will provide a strong understanding of assessment processes and possible future trends. The work is a little occupationally focused and technical so it is not likely to be fun reading. Yet the typical person to buy this book is more interested in understanding the behind the scenes process of evaluting doctoral education. 

Maki, P & Borkowski, N. (2006). The Assessment of Doctoral Education. VA: Stylus Publishing ISBN: 978-1579221799

Pages: Approximately 260

Price: $24

Wired Café Le Bistro Serves Neighborhood Patrons with a French Twist

Rarely do you find a place that fits many of your personal needs. Those rare finds often bring customers back again and again over the years. Businesses are aware of their customer profiles and seek to continually tune-in on their customer needs by providing the right atmosphere consistently and flawlessly. Even though all businesses make mistakes it is those that offer maintain their focus that are likely to overcome any shortcomings.

There are a number of factors associated with the success of individual businesses. Convenience (location), food offerings (variety), price (relative value), atmosphere (servicescape), customer focus (customer profile),and social benefits are a few you can consider. Wired Café is a neighborhood café, with a variety menu, at  prices under $15, which provides a relaxed environment with a touch of ethnic flavor. The staff has an opportunity to become familiar with their regular customers which helps strengthen their customer base.

Wired Café Le Bistro offers a hometown feel with just a touch of French culture. It isn’t a place you would expect valet service, table cloths, and real silver spoons but it does have charm that surpasses many of the other cafes. It is a family owned business that is well managed, clean, and reasonable. It is one of those unique small neighborhood cafes that cater to breakfast, lunch, dinner and cocktails. 

 

The Bistro offers a variety of seating arrangements. Booth, bar, table, and patio seating are available. There are few things better than sitting under the stars having a cup of coffee or glass of wine while you converse with a friend or someone special. It is moments like these that really sell the charm of a place and provide positive feelings that becomes associated with any business. All businesses sell memories.

The food choices are small plate and European by nature. There is a French feel and orientation to their menu. Most main courses are under $15 while cheaper sandwiches, salads, and appetizers are available. Wine selections are large and priced under $8.00 per glass. Internet works well and draws in customers with their laptops during non peak hours. Order a coffee or snack and you’re set for a while.

Wired Café Le Bistro strategy appears to seek out customers within a five mile radius and offers an affordable menu to draw them throughout the week. Busy times are midday and evenings during the weekends. On Friday and Saturday they may provide live folk background music. The outdoor seating arrangements seem to be a large draw for local customers who are attracted to seeing neighborhood residents and activity. The atmosphere is very casual so you can come in flip flops or a shirt and tie. Dress up, dress down…it doesn’t seem to matter. 

Wired Café Le Bistro

8935 Towne Ctr Dr
Ste 110
San Diego, CA 92122

(858) 450-0880

Wine Review: Candy-Apple Red Cabernet Sauvignon

In the perpetual search for the perfect wine I am forced to try interesting varieties. Sometimes these wines tantalize the right taste buds and other times they do not do justice. Being in the mood for something a little sweet, I picked up a bottle of Jellybean the Candy-Apple Red Cabernet Sauvignon. Thinking this was a type of flavored wine with blackberry jam, boysenberry pie and hints of cherry licorice that was to give me “candy flavors” I was excited to give it a shot.

A few days later, I had my chance and poured myself just a little. With a red tone associated with dark cherries it looked a little like fruit punch in a glass. It had a heavy look and clung slightly to the edges of the glass. Something akin to heavy punch in both smell and texture. Raising the glass to my lips, I noticed the first taste of berries that seemed to excite the senses. However, the aftertaste was not particularly that exciting. Not bad…but not exciting. Don't be afraid to try it as your tastes might be different.

Therefore, I decided to experiment with the wine and mix it with another brand of Cabernet Sauvignon and found that the two had a very strong combination. You might want to try this mixture for yourself to see what happens. If your palate is not into the high berry taste of Jelly Belly then go ahead and mix it with a less fruity brand. It works out fine and you might actually like it better than many of the wines you have purchased at full price.

Jelly Bean wine is a young person’s wine with bright flavors and bright colors. They host a number of different events in their wine tasting outlets. It is branded for a generation that is not yet very familiar with wine and provides some of their first interests in sweet tasting flavors. Fun, exciting, outgoing, and youthful are some of the words that can describe this product. It is a social party wine that is full of good times.

Cabernet Saugignon is a popular Californian wine. The grapes grow well in many different atmospheres and climates. As a small berry, it is seasoned just a little longer before being harvested. These berries are dark and tannic. A higher level of spice should be expected and an aftertaste may be more associated with drying out the back of the mouth. As a high tannin berry, it pairs well with meat, lamb, lentils, and other high fatty foods.  Such foods protect the taste buds from the high kick taste.

http://www.jellybeanwines.com/

Hotel Management and Service Improvement Through Job Embeddedness

Casa del Mar

Hotels and resorts hire a higher percentage of service employees and are constantly seeking ways to improve on service delivery. To create seamless service it is necessary to have stronger performance the moment the bell person takes the customers bags to the server who delivers their order. Research in job embeddedness helps to highlight how training, empowerment, and rewards can lead to higher levels of performance by service workers. Yet this research also indicates that rewards and training may not be the most important consideration.

Job embeddedness is a concept that refers to, “the combined forces that keep a person from leaving his or her job” (Yao et. al, 2004,pp. 159). This concept can include compensation, organizational fit, personal abilities, management style, etc… The concept is closely associated with employee satisfaction in terms of how and what employees feel about the organization.

Turnover rates and poor performance can be expensive for organizations. In many low skilled positions turnover rates can be excessive costing both time and money for recruiting and training. Higher absenteeism, resistant behavior, and poor customer relations can take a toll on a company’s profit margins. Understanding and improving upon job embeddedness will also improve upon the human relations and performance within the organization.

Job embeddedness theory indicates that when there are strong links and proper organization fit between employees and organizations, employees will be more motivated to display strong performance (Lee, et. al, 2004). This performance has a whole range of important improvements for organizations. Consider a few of the following:

-Stronger service and service recovery.

-Lower turnover rates and improvement costs.

-Less resistant behavior.

-Higher human efficiency and performance.

-Higher customer return rates and impression.

As you look through the list above you might be able to figure that each of the costs are associated with poor employee embeddedness. When customers have a poor impression of the organization they are not likely to return and this can limit present and future sales. Resistant behavior and poor performance can cause mistakes within the workplace and an inability to improve upon operations as employees avoid change and direction. As organizations are socio-economic groups these concepts are central to a well-run business.

According to a study conducted by Karatepel and Karadas (2012) job embeddedness has a huge factor on organizational success. They collected sample data from 7 hotels ranked in the four and five star resort area of Poiana Brasov region of Romania. All participants were direct front-line workers hired as desk agents, food servers, door attendance, guest representatives, bell attendants and bar tenders.

-Training, empowerment, and rewards enhance front-line employee job embeddedness.

-Association of empowerment and service recovery.

-No association between training and service recovery.

-Training and empowerment increase extra-role behavior.

-No association of rewards and extra-role behavior.

-Job embeddedness as a concept increase service performance.

Analysis:

The concept of job embeddedness entails the perception of employees and their positions within the organization. The study has encouraged a better understanding of how training, empowerment, and rewards can improve upon this perception and increase overall performance. Since training was not associated with service recovery while empowerment was associated employees should feel free to find unique ways to meet customer needs. This would be difficult if were not allowed to go outside necessary procedures when necessary. Furthermore, since training and empowerment also increased extra-role behaviors of employees it would be a beneficial focus of management leaders. Together the concepts of training, rewards, and empowerment enhance embeddedness which has a tangible result on extra-role behavior and overall service recovery.

Lee, T. , Mitchell, T., Sablynski, C.,  Burton, J.& Holtom, B.(2004). The effects of job embeddedness on organizational citizenship, job performance, volitional absences, and voluntary turnover, Academy of Management Journal 47(5): 711–722.

Yao, X., Lee, T., Mitchell, T.& Burton, J. & Sablynski, C. (2004). Job embeddedness:

current research and future directions, in Griffeth, R.; Hom, P. (Eds.). Understanding Employee

Retention and Turnover. Greenwich, CT: Information Age, 153–187.

Karatepel, O. & Karadas, G. (2012). The effect of management commitment to service quality on job embeddedness and performance outcomes. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 13 (4).