Book Review: The Philosophy of Science A Very Short Introduction

The Philosophy of Science A Very Short Introduction by Samir Okasha discusses the very nature of science and what it means to engage in scientific thinking. The book will bring you through the definitions of science, scientific reasoning, realism and anti-realism, scientific revolutions and philosophical problems. It is solid reading for students and laypeople that desire to get a basic grasp of science.

Science started in the 1400 to 1700 with people like Copernicus who built a model of the universe and Aristotle who put forward ideas of physics, biology, astronomy and cosmology. Science is a way in which we think about the world (i.e. scientific mindset) and how we compare and contrast elements to come to conclusions of the world in which we live. 

A key component of science is a concept called falsifiable brought forward by Karl Popper. All theories and predictions must be falsifiable in the sense that experience can determine them wrong over time. Pseudo-science was described as theories of psychotherapy brought forward by Freud because anything the patient does can be explained away with no obvious observable proofs of latent functions. 

Consider the use of a theoretical model to predict that a certain event will occur. As time moves forward the event either happens or it doesn’t thereby making is verifiable. Theories that cannot be tested and shown to be false are also unlikely to be true. There must be criteria to lend support or take support away from the theory. If you can’t prove or disprove it then it isn’t a theory.

More pointedly the book discusses induction and deduction as methods of understanding concepts and coming to new conclusions. The example of deduction provided by the book is 1.) The French like wine, and 2.) Pierre is a Frenchman therefore it can be deducted that Pierre likes wine.  It doesn’t matter if the inferences actually make the conclusion true but that they can lead to the conclusion. 

Inductive reasoning is difficult to use in science but is commonly applied to everyday life. It is assumed that the sun rises in the East and sets in the West every day. Using inductive reasoning we can say that the sun will rise in the East tomorrow and set in the West. We are likely to be right but that doesn’t make it a truth while the observation isn’t necessarily proof that it will happen over and over. 

The book doesn’t move into this concept but it is possible to use deductive, inductive and probable abductive reasoning together to be more accurate. We may use deductive reasoning to go from the general down to the specific and then use inductive reasoning to rebuild the model outward in another place to see if it also holds true.  We can then use abductive reasoning to understand the likelihood of the conclusion holding true to the explanation in both examples. 

Either way you are likely to find the book interesting and provide a broad understanding of the basic principles of science. It is the type of book you should read if you have studied the sciences, plan on studying to a doctorate, or want to test something within your environment. The price on kindle is reasonable and retails for around $2.

Eating Breakfast Doesn't Lead to Weight Loss

Eating breakfast has been associated with weight loss for years. Conventional wisdom is that by eating breakfast you are boosting your metabolism and this in turn encourages greater weight loss throughout the day. Recent research published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition thwarts that concept by showing that skipping or eating breakfast has no noticeable effect on weight loss. 

Previous studies found more correlation than causation. Correlation indicates that two variables are associated but doesn’t really say in depth how associated they are. Causation helps to show that variable A causes variable B. In science causation is a stronger connection and level of analysis than a correlation. Without causation it is possible that other compound factors are involved in the findings.

A total of 283 participants engaged in a 16-week program. Participants were healthy overweight or obese and were between the ages of 20-65 years old. Depending on the overall group, the participants were assigned to either skip breakfast or eat breakfast. The researchers hoped to find a change that resulted in weight loss. 

Instead researchers found that there was no noticeable difference between those who ate breakfast and those who didn’t.  Those who skipped breakfast lost −0.71 while those who did not lost −0.53. Statistically these are so similar that it doesn’t make much of a difference. Skipping or eating breakfast doesn’t really make much of a difference in weight loss. 

This doesn’t mean skipping breakfast is something we should do. It only means that it doesn’t contribute significantly to weight loss. The lower calorie consumption may have a difference in total weight loss and it is important to reduce bad calories while increasing good calories. Good calories come from fruit, vegetables, nuts, fish, and various kinds of meat. 

Fitness enthusiasts are still left with the total calorie count. According to the Mayo clinic it takes approximately 3,500 calories to lose a pound so cutting 500 calories a day out of your diet will help you lose around a pound a week (1). Losing weight and getting in shape are two different but associated things. Go ahead and reduce portions, swap high calorie/low nutrition foods for low calorie/high nutrition foods, and eat a variety of foods for nutrients.

Dhurandhar, E. et. al. (2014). The effectiveness of breakfast recommendations on weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Retrieved June 6^th, 2014 from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2014/06/04/ajcn.114.089573.abstract

No Monkey Business with Math Calculating Primates

Most of us have difficulty with math. The exercise lands in the categories somewhere between going to the dentist and paying bills. However, math is an important function of higher order thinking. It requires the ability to understand quantities of information and put those into symbols for manipulation. According to a recent study in the National Academy of Science (PNAS) Rhesus Monkeys have the ability to do math using similar methods as humans. 

Using three Rhesus Macques that are four and five years old the researchers put them into an intense math learning program. The monkeys studied two to four hours a day and were rewarded with treats. Sometimes these monkeys studied seven days a week in their own learning classes. 

The monkeys touched a screen choosing between two options (1). The touch screen only required them to touch the right answers to get rewarded (conditioning). They were taught 26 abstract symbols by reinforcing correct learning. The monkeys were able to touch the biggest number 90% of the time.

The monkeys were able to move from using physical quantities to abstract Arabic numerals. Larger numbers received larger rewards. Correct answers created satisfaction in the learning. As an example they were taught the difference between XXX xx XXX xx or 11 as a higher number. It requires a fundamental shift in what these symbols represented to the monkeys. 

Humans are still the best in math and can learn more quickly than monkeys. However, the study does help us find the 97%+ similarities found between the two species. It is possible that monkeys have the capacity to use some of the mental processes of humans as well as the ability to think abstractly about numbers. Researchers have known for a long time how smart rhesus monkeys were and have used those in various programs include space flight. They now know they are capable of much more with the right education.  

The Study

Call for Papers: Global Business and Finance Research Conference

Date:  May 5^th-6th, 2014

Location: Marriott Hotel, Melbourne, Australia

Submission Deadline: 4 April, 2014

Registration Deadline: 25 April, 2014

Website: www.ausconfo.com

The above 2-day annual international gathering intends to bring together academics and researchers from all over the world to exchange and share their knowledge, experiences and research results about all broad areas of Accounting, Banking, Finance, Economics, Management and Marketing, Business Law, Business Ethics, Business Educations and e-business. This conference is organised by Australian Research Centre for Accounting, Finance and Economics (ARCAFE), Australia and sponsored by Journal of Accounting, Finance and Economics and eight other international peer reviewed journals which are indexed by Cabell's Directory of USA and listed by ERA, Australia, 5 of which are ranked by ABDC of Australia.