Emotional Intelligence Slides

Emotional Intelligence in Financial Planning from AC Swanson Group

History of Distance Learning

Historical Overview by Dr. Andree Swanson

Early History of Distance Education

Contrary to the myth that distance learning is the result of the Internet, non-traditional distance education has its beginnings in Biblical times. Distance education first appeared in the early Christian church. “Paul wrote letters to newly formed churches in the hope that they might learn about the way” (Coe, 1999, p. 354). Later, Mongolian educators "taught that Genghis Khan established a national ‘mobile learning’ system” using speedy equestrians as the delivery method (Baggaley, 2008, p. 42).

The correspondence style teaching approach grew through the years until a formal approach to education was developed. In the 19^th century, organizations and colleges began providing lessons and instruction using correspondence. As early as 1837, Sir Isaac James Pitman taught correspondence courses in stenographic shorthand and later created the Phonographic Correspondence Society (Casey, 2008; Tracey & Richey, 2005; Wang & Liu, 2003). In 1873, in the United States, Anna Ticknor created a correspondence course society to encourage women of all social classes. The Society to Encourage Studies at Home delivered course materials for study at home (Eliot, 1897; Harting & Erthal, 2005). Baggaley (2008) stated that Lenin sent teachers with educational materials via train through the vast expanses of Russia. With the examples listed above, the educational material was delivered via mobile media (by foot; horses, and trains). Distance education defined its beginnings.

Twentieth Century History of Distance Education

With roots in Sweden as early as 1838, England in 1840, the United States in 1843, and Australia in 1909, curriculum was delivered via correspondence courses (Harting & Erthal, 2005; Stacey & Visser, 2005). In the 20^th century, distance learning evolved from correspondence-based to radio-based and later television-based (Harting & Erthal, 2005; Nasseh, 1997; Wang & Liu, 2003). Students no longer received educational materials via mail. Students could view or listen to the information in his or her home, classroom, or work location. Tracey and Richey (2005) stated that distance education, where the educator and student were geographically and physically in different time zones, was the fastest growing form of teaching and learning around the world. Tracey and Richey provided a history of print-based correspondence detailing the strengths and weaknesses of this learning medium.

Pittman (2006) wrote about Helen Williams “directed the University of Iowa’s Bureau of Correspondence Study” (p. 107) from 1920 to 1939. Beginning in the 1920s, several universities tried to broadcast correspondence courses over the radio. The potential for radio broadcasting was appealing to administrators. Williams’ program attempted radio broadcasting and was unsuccessful as were other schools (Pittman, 2006). In 1932, the University of Iowa began broadcasting educational teaching programs via television; however, college courses for credit were not offered until the 1950s (Tracey & Richey, 2005).

From 1957 to 1962, New York University (NYU) broadcast Sunrise Semester for people who wanted to earn college credit in their homes. NYU along with the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) started Sunrise Semester as an experiment; however, the show lasted 24 years (Murphey & Wright, 1958; New York University, n.d.). Mr. Sam Digges, general manager of the New York CBS affiliate, pioneered this first offering of a credit course on television. Despite criticism, the station received more than 7,500 enrollments (Fowler, 1990). With the advent of space technology in the 1960s, satellite-delivered educational systems were implemented (Tracey & Richey, 2005). The National Institute of Education funded the Appalachian Education Satellite Project to supplement local education programs (Appalachian Education Satellite Project, 1976; Bramble & Ausness, 1974; Tracey & Richey, 2005). Later in 1979, the Alaska legislature funded a research study to look at the feasibility of using satellite-delivered television programs for educational purposes. In 1985, the program, Learn/Alaska, reached more than 85 communities and provided 18 hours of education (from pre-kindergarten to adult) (National Technical Information Service [NTIS], 1982; Tracey & Richey, 2005).

Distance education is distinctly different from online learning (Larreamendy-Joerns & Leinhardt, 2006). Larreamendy-Joerns and Leinhardt (2006) defined distance education as “pedagogical oddity, often requiring further justification, such as the extension of educational opportunities or the encouragement of life-long learning” (p. 570). Because the Internet is easily available through free Internet cafes to local fast food restaurants to hospital waiting rooms, online education has moved to a primary position when designing programs and curriculum. Major universities such as Carnegie Mellon, Harvard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Yale, evidenced this and have designed key programs and initiatives focusing on the online delivery method (Larreamendy-Joerns & Leinhardt, 2006). These colleges and universities, in addition to other initiatives at other schools, have substantiated the cause for online learning and have aided in legitimizing other online universities. Larreamendy-Joerns and Leinhardt (2006) stated that although a few colleges and universities have not been successful with online programs, distance-learning initiatives are formidable and legitimate.

Distance Education around the World

Distance education further evolved through technological advances and the Internet has become the most common mode of delivery within the United States (Baggaley, 2008). In the Fall 2005 edition of Quarterly Review of Distance Education, the editors devoted the issue to the “international history of distance education” (Visser, 2005, p. viii). Several researchers covered the countries of Mexico, Mauritania, Russia, France, Australia, and Botswana, and the cities of Hong Kong and Quebec. Wheeler (2005) reported on attending the 13th European Distance and E-Learning Network (EDEN). In 2005, EDEN, whose conference focused on the electronic delivery of programs and courses, had “a membership of 110 institutional members and over 500 individual members in 41 countries” (Wheeler, 2005, p. 261).

The destinations reviewed have definite challenges; however, these countries had ambitious and optimistic plans for developing distance education in the future (Castañeda & Visser, 2005; Dhurbarrylall & Visser, 2005; Hope, Butcher, & Visser, 2005; Nage-Sibande & Visser, 2005). Japan delivers through satellite broadcast media. In Mongolia, educators are seeking alternatives to using the Internet because connectivity is very slow (Baggaley, 2008). In the Philippines, educational leaders are developing delivery methods through cell phones and short message services (SMS) (Baggaley, 2008).

Baggaley (2008) stated history of education is over a thousand-years old and that distance education is only a small portion of this history. In the early history of distance education, the media and educators focused on a directly connecting the student to the instructor. As the development of distance education has evolved in the 20^th century, asynchronous delivery methods were emphasized. Direct contact between the student and the teacher was removed from the learning process (Baggaley, 2008). The learning medium has evolved from letter writing in Biblical times to 20^th century radio-broadcasting, and now onto the use of Internet-based classrooms. As learning management systems evolve, learning styles are also important to review and evaluate in a literature review.

References available upon request:  andreeswan@aol.com

Partially reprinted in on Academic-Capital.net, with permission from the UMI Dissertation Express, where this dissertation originally appeared in 2010. Copyright 2010 UMI.

An Evaluation of Social Connectedness Online

By Dr Andree Swanson

Picture by Dr. Andree Swanson

Communicating in the online learning environment is difficult at best.  To feel connected to faculty and fellow students is almost impossible.  Interpersonal exchanges are “more difficult for online students to engage in the kinds of collaborative peer interactions that often result in the construction of meaning and achievement of learning goals” (Slagter van Tryon & Bishop, 2012, p. 347).  Slagter van Tryon and Bishop (2006) have been studying the topic of social connectivity as it relates to student engagement and interaction, and coined the phrase e-connectivity (e-mmediacy).  Swanson, Hutkin, Babb, and Howell (2010) defined as:  “E-mmediacy or e-connectivity is the feelings or believing of social connectedness that students and faculty get through the technologically enhanced online learning environment (Slagter van Tyson, 2007; Slagter van Tyson & Bishop, 2006)” (p. 17).

Before this current study, there was no validated instruments to measure e-connectivity, so Slagter van Tryon and Bishop “designed and development the Social Perceptions in Learning Contexts Instrument (SPLCI)” (p. 348).  The two researchers developed a three-step process to create this instrument.  Phase 1 was involved creating an initial instrument based on their extensive literature review and their previous research on the topic of e-immediacy.  Phase 2 incorporated experts to review and recommend revisions.  In this phase, the researchers tested the reliability and validity of the evolving instrument.  In Phase 3, the final stage involved more analysis and revision, thus resulting in the final assessment tool.

Slagter van Tryon and Bishop and the experts identified three themes that emerged.  To overcome e-connectivity or e-mmediacy in a distance education classroom, one must: 1) increase interactions, 2) provide “comprehensive technical support”, and, 3) provide persistent follow-up (p. 350).  “When students feel e-mmediacy it appears that valuable cognitive resources that might be wasted on inefficient social information processing can be allocated, instead, to cognitive information processing and the learning goals of the course” (Slagter van Tryon and Bishop, p. 352).  Personally, I have found this to be the case in classes where there is increased interaction in the online classroom. 

After creating an in-depth instrument, the researchers tried it on a small pilot study with a sample size of 50.  Although, this was one of the limitations of the study, they concluded that this study was beneficial and further research should be done.  Both Slagter van Tryon and Bishop and Fisher, Durrance, and Unruh (2003) recommend further research into what enhances the learning experience for students by increasing e-connectivity in the online environment.

This study builds on my own dissertation which revealed the best practices for e-connectivity in online courses. 

In a review of contemporary literature, research revealed that students believe they cannot connect with their instructors in online classrooms (Hughes, Ventura, & Dando, 2007; Stichter, Lewis, Richter, Johnson, & Bradley, 2006).  Faculty, administrators, curriculum designers, and student advisors in institutions that offer online programs do not adequately address the social and psychological connectivity needs of students (DeShields, Kara, & Kaynak, 2005). This lack of attention to the social and affective needs has a negative effect on learner satisfaction and retention (Bonk, 2002; Melrose & Bergeron, 2006; Moody, 2004; Simpson, 2004; Slagter van Tryon & Bishop, 2006).  Specific guidance on social interaction in the proprietary online classroom does not exist.  Because of the absence of guidance, training on e-connectivity is lacking for online faculty and students' satisfaction is decreased leading to a higher attrition rate (Dow, 2008; Drouin, 2008; Herbert, 2006; Scollins-Mantha, 2008).

By using Bloom's Taxonomy as a foundation for the overall review, six emerging themes appeared:

Cognitive

}  Show relevance to students.

Affective

}  Establish e-connectivity.

}  Instructor presence.

}  Positive communication.

}  Ability to be open to social networking.

Psychomotor

}  Use of technologies to e-connect. (Swanson, 2011, p. 1)

As this compares to Slagter van Tryon and Bishop’s themes, there is a relationship.

Table 1

Comparison of Swanson et al.’s Themes as Compared to Slagter van Tryon and Bishop’s Themes

Swanson et al.’s Themes	Slagter van Tryon and Bishop’s Themes
Cognitive }  Show relevance to students.
Affective }  Establish e-connectivity. }  Instructor presence. }  Positive communication. }  Ability to be open to social networking.	Increase interactions Provide persistent follow-up
Psychomotor }  Use of technologies to e-connect.	Provide comprehensive technical support

Perhaps in the future, the SPLCI can be used to assess your online classroom.  Interested in giving this a try?

References

Fisher, K. E., Durrance, J.C., Unruh, K. T. (2003). Information communities: Characteristics gleaned from studies of three online networks. Proceedings of the ASSIST Annual Meeting, 40, 298-305.

Slagter van Tryon, P. J., & Bishop, M. J. (2012). Evaluating social connectedness online: The design and development of the Social Perceptions in Learning Contexts Instrument. Distance Education, 33(3), 347-364.

Slagter van Tryon, P. J., & Bishop, M. J. (2006). Identifying “e-mmediacy” strategies for web-based instruction: A Delphi study. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 7(1), 49-63. Retrieved from ProQuest database.

Swanson, A. C. (2011, August). Six themes of e-connectivity in online courses. e-Poster research session, 27th Annual Distance Learning Conference, Madison, WI. Retrieved from University of Madison, WI website: http://www.uwex.edu/disted/conference/Resource_library/proceedings/46810_2011.pdf

Swanson, A., Hutkin, R., Babb, D., & Howell, S. (2010, Sep). Establishing the best practices for social interaction and e-connectivity in online higher education classes. Doctoral dissertation, University of Phoenix, Arizona. Publication Number: 3525517. Retrieved from http://gradworks.umi.com/3525517.pdf

Why is Wikipedia not a Strong Source for Papers?

By Dr. Andree Swanson

Wikipedia is not considered a valid and reliable reference.  Most professors will not accept citation or reference from Wikipedia.  First, it is most likely copied and pasted from the web.  Second, the information may not be accurate.

In April 2006, when I first wrote this article, this paragraph looked like this:

The content of Wikipedia is free, written collaboratively by people from all around the world. This website is a wiki, which means that anyone with access to an Internet-connected computer can edit, correct, or improve information throughout the encyclopedia, simply by clicking the edit this page link (with a few minor exceptions such as protected articles)...On Wikipedia...you are welcome to...edit articles yourself, contributing knowledge as you see fit in a collaborative way.

Today, the anonymous authors have been busy and changed the content.  Here is how the above paragraph looks today in December 2013:

Wikipedia is written collaboratively by largely anonymous Internet volunteers who write without pay. Anyone with Internet access can write and make changes to Wikipedia articles, except in limited cases where editing is restricted to prevent disruption or vandalism. Users can contribute anonymously, under a pseudonym, or, if they choose to, with their real identity.

The content on Wikipedia is not verified and may contain more opinions and errors than other, more academic, sources.  Students are better off to use the expert(s) that are readily available, the author(s) of their textbooks.

Websites presenting original material can readily serve as references/sources.  Additional articles, which you might find through search engines such as Google Scholar or databases such as Proquest or Ebscohost are much better.

For example, the New York Times tells a tale of deception in “Snared in the Web of a Wikipedia Liar” Source: http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/weekinreview/04seelye.html?ex=1291352400&en=6a97402d6595c6f1&ei=5090

Read more about it at the New York Times “Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy” Source: http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/17/technology/17wiki.html?ei=5088&en=646c3d018ce68f36&ex=1308196800

All sources used in a paper must, of course, be properly cited and referenced to avoid any instances of plagiarism. Whether writing for a course or creating handouts for a presentation, avoid the temptation to use Wikipedia as a source.

Stakeholder Orientation and Stakeholder Marketing

Stakeholder Orientation

Ferrell, Fraedrich and Ferrell (2013) stated that, “The degree to which a firm understands and addresses stakeholder demands can be referred to as stakeholder orientation” (p. 35).  According to Duesing (2009), one of the primary management theories is the Stakeholder Orientation (SO).  

  Ansoff (1965) initially discussed SO in terms of “balancing the conflicting claims of the various ‘stakeholders’ in the firm: managers, workers, stockholders, suppliers, vendors. The firm has a responsibility to all of these and must configure its objectives so as to give each a measure of satisfaction” as cited in Duesing.

Multiple authors have added to this definition to include the community and environment (Berman et al., 1999) to competitors and other industries (Greenley & Foxall, 1997) as cited in Duesing. Duesing (2009) posits that literature has previously stated that SO positively affects organizational performance.  The results of Duesing’s study showed that of all the stakeholders the ones with the strongest affect on organizational performance were employees and customers.

Stakeholder Marketing

Stakeholder marketing takes into consideration that the market is more than a unique niche.  The customers are not standalone islands, but are vastly interconnected with government, other vendors, their community, and all of these affect the decisions that the consumers will make (Hosfeld, 2013).

Stakeholder marketing is an important part of embracing a systems perspective because it engages with the marketplace as such a dynamic system. It can also reflect the intention to create social good, depending on the degree of mutuality to which the company aspires (Hosfeld, 2013).

In this global and innovative marketplace, we must consider all ethical factors in place , when establishing a stakeholder marketing strategy.  Listed below in Table 1 are Forbe’s Top Ten Corporate Citizens that have the highest standards of ethical behavior when considering all of their stakeholders.

Table 1

Forbe’s Top Ten Corporate Citizens

Number	Organization
1	Bristol – Myers Squibb
2	IBM
3	Microsoft
4	Intel
5	Johnson Controls
6	Accenture
7	Spectra Energy
8	Campbell’s
9	Nike
10	Freeport-McMoran Copper & Gold

Author: Dr. Andree Swanson

References

Duesing, R. (2009). Stakeholder orientation and its impact on performance in small businesses. Doctoral dissertation. Retrieved from http://udini.proquest.com/view/stakeholder-orientation-and-its-pqid:1876290581/

Ferrell, O. C., Fraedrich, J., & Ferrell, L. (2013). Business ethics & social responsibility. [OMM640 Custom edition] Mason, OH: Cengage Learning .

Hosfeld, K. (2013). Stakeholder marketing: Building trust and loyalty in cynical market. Hosfeld and Associates. Retrieved from http://blog.hosfeld.com/trust/stakeholder-marketingbuilding-trust-and-loyalty-in-a-cynical-market/