Hegel: Reason in History

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German-Prussian romantic in the sense that he saw the finite man as an element that moves toward the infinite. To him self-consciousness comes from thoughts thinking about themselves and this becomes a path to Absolute Knowledge. Absolute Knowledge is the highest form of spirit as a free thinking and logical rationality. Society is seen as pushing people closer and closer to the development of an ideal where thoughts and reality are intertwined. Understanding history helps mankind to understand the overall development of society and governmental systems as synonymous with the development of the freedom of spirit. 

Hegel discussed three analytical approaches to understanding history in his work Reason in History. His argument is that history can be seen as original history, reflective history, and philosophical history. Each provides a different vantage point and way to look at historically significant events. 

Original History: The unadulterated history as offered in manuscripts, facts, etc… of the time. 

Reflective History:  Reflective thought and interpretation of history. 

Philosophical History: Using philosophy to see events as a path to development. 

The author argues that all actions within the world are based upon reason. It was reason that caused the events and it is reason in which they are interpreted. Even the plans of God should be interpreted through the philosophy of development and reason. 

The only true form of freedom that people can realize is the freedom of spirit. As human actions and passion are subjective experiences they can be interpreted in many different ways. Yet as these passions and actions mesh with underlying principles (truths) the true freedom of spirit comes to know itself and become aware of its existence. 

The spirit can realize itself within the State. The State is the governmental and cultural systems of people. The State is a material aspect in which the spirit comes to actualize itself in varying forms. The historical development of people is based within the development of the state through the course of history. As the spirit changes so will the state or that state will decline as it no longer manifests the development of spirit. 

Human kind is on a continually path to realize its spirit in self-conscious, rational freedom. Societies may come and go but all will be subject to the manifestation of spirit.  To look and analyze history is the same as analyzing the development of citizens and their spirit. Where humans are not developing the nature of the state begins to decline. 

If we look at places in the world that are suffering under the weight of their own existence we may come to find that true development of the inhabitants is generally lacking. Using Hegel’s philosophical framework it is possible to see that a contained spirit is one that is not manifesting itself into higher states of existence. The development of society and the human spirit is also the development of the innovative and economic development of an area. Societies that allow thoughts, words, and constructive actions to flow freely are also likely to develop economically and socially. Those that are bent on control or subjugation are likely to decline and suffer the weight of impoverishment. Thus, the thoughts and actions of leaders impact the lives of their followers and this can only change through environmental forces or the forces from within people themselves. History determines the success of all social experiments.

Hegel, G. (1837). Reason in History. NJ; Prentice-Hall, inc. ISBM 0-02-351320-9

The Road to Serfdom by F.A. Hayek-Structure vs. Performance

Friedrick August Hayek was an Austrian and later British economist and philosopher. He was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his work on a theory of money and economic fluctuations that tied in an analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena.  He was a lead 20^th century thinker that contributed to economics, systems, neuroscience, jurisprudence and history of ideas. It was these multiple vantage points of seeing the nature of society and its economic system that led to one of his most influential works Road to Serfdom. 

In his work the Road to Serfdom he argues the main points that the loss of individualism also means the loss of liberty, oppression, and the eventual serfdom of people. His argument is that as governments centralize their power they also create limitations on people to develop their economic abilities for the betterment of the nation. Even though centralization has good intentions it eventually limits the ability of people to compete. Development must come through the individual and contribute as an individual to the collective benefit of all. He advocates for a bottom (individual) upwards form of social structure versus a top (administration) moving downward which creates natural limitations. 

Centralized control can be seen as a function of GNP. As governments control higher levels of GNP they will naturally exert certain powers over the lives of individuals. This power creates structures within society that limit the abilities of individuals to manifest their individual destinies. It would seem that strong governments are those that maintain the lowest amount of GNP as necessary to complete their duties and functions. Beyond this, governments could be seen as having unnecessary control over markets.

He argues that the only way to improve upon the betterment of people and the management of society is to push for truly free markets that enhance the ability of people to generate their own income. In this respect Hayek appears to have a level of validity in terms that true Capitalism is a free system whereby each person has an opportunity to produce income and is not thwarted by forced social adherence, policies that protect the conglomerates of companies or individuals, or in any way damage the ability of individuals to produce a living based upon their own skills and abilities. 

From Hayek’s arguments he does not believe government has no place in the market. Yet the government's role is confined to those things such as environmental protections, minimal safety nets, consumer protection, and labor rules that are considered fair and just. However, allowing special interest groups or companies to use government as another system of controlling people and their financial abilities to live free lives is a sure path to serfdom. Government should primarily concern itself with legislation that is necessary for the betterment of everyone and not continual consolidation of power and resources to control or manipulate markets. 

The book moves through a number of great chapters that include The Abandoned Road, The Great Utopia, Individualism and Collectivism, The Inevitability of Planning, Planning and Democracy, Planning and the Rule of Law, Economic Control and Totalitarianism, Who, Whom?, Security and Freedom, Why the Worst Get on Top, The End of Truth, The Socialists Roots of Nazism, The totalitarians in our Midst, Material Conditions and Ideal Ends, Prospects of International Order. 

After reading the book I find myself thinking about the importance of rewarding knowledge and performance in the marketplace versus social adherence. Government’s greatest responsibility would be to legislate only when it is necessary to maintain the free market (i.e. anti-trust laws) or when individuals are no longer free to make a living because of social, economic, or special interests. Laws are nation’s ethical standards and provide a framework for people to understand how to exist and compete in the market. If these laws unnecessarily protect certain groups from realizing their true potential or force a “status quo” on the population these laws should be removed as they limit the potential of a nation.  An entire system will eventually collapse and become impoverished when individuals cannot scan their environments and come to the conclusion that their performance equates directly to their success. The more people who come to this conclusion the closer the population is to serfdom as people’s potential wanes against the need to maintain social structure. Motivation is an internal force that pushes to be realized in a receptive or unreceptive environment. If that environment forces compliance with lower standards and rigid social expectations the highest levels of performance can’t be realized.

Albert Einstein Philosophy on Religion and Science

Albert Einstein was known for his ability to conceptualize concepts back to their beginning or root. He wasn’t a great mathematician or writer, but was excellent as an abstract thinker. Today he is seen as one of the top three most intelligent people in the world who changed the nature of science and became a model of intelligence. His ideas on religion and science is one that aligns with a number early philosophers. His beliefs were based in his deep study of religion in his childhood and scientific beliefs in later years.

Like Spinoza he believed in a God of all things but not necessarily a personalized God. His argument is that as society developed there was the God of Fear, The God of Providence, and finally a Cosmic Religion. The development of the Cosmic Religion is believed to be a sign of critical analysis because of the inherent scientific examination of God into cause and effect in the world. Morality then becomes more subjective.

The God of Fear was invented to help people formalize their vision and explain an unexplainable world. To them mystical powers, punishments from the heavens, and causes could only be attributed to a supreme ruler and mystical being.  The concept of God was a manifestation of fear of the world and those who had power in society. A priestly structure was developed that helped people talk to their God in much the same way people talked to their Kings. 

The God of Providence was a higher state in human development. It is the God that protects, provides, and gives life. Some argue that this God applies to only their own religion or their own culture. It is an individual God that helps society become more moral. This is often seen in the differences of mindset that is associated with the old world rules replaced by a more loving world. It is an advancement in the way people think in terms of their ability to treat each other for society’s sake. Naturally some are included and some excluded from this “saved” concept based upon their cultural differences. 

The cosmic God is unchained from specific religious points of view. There is no old man on a cloud throwing lightning bolts like Thor nor is there a specific God related to a particular sect, religion, culture or race. It is a God that applies to everyone in the way that Democritus, Francis of Assisi, and Spinoza saw it. Science and religion become wrapped into a more singular mindset. Each becomes a path to the truth with a God that is more universal and embedded into the nature of all human beings. 

Einstein’s conception of God is certainly interesting. He is right in the sense that the more we are aware of the cause and effect of life the more we are likely to remove images of little devils behind our kitchen cupboards or a God on a cloud. Yet like Einstein there are a great many things we must admit we don’t know. He felt that there were laws that needed to be followed and this is a sign of intelligent design. The cosmic religion is one of education, sympathy, and social ties. We cannot forget that each seed has within it the need to grow, develop, and reproduce without being a product of randomness. We can be sure there will be a continually search for truth among scientists and the spiritual class.

Book Review: The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant

The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant is an excellent book that offers an overview of philosophy throughout history. From Aristotle to more modern thinkers the spectrum is defined. It provides an explanation of each of the philosophies so that readers understand what they mean and the personal histories of each person. As an overview, it does not move into specific depth but does afford a broad range of understanding.  It is a great place to understand how leading thinkers influence economics, science, and life. 

The life of philosophers is not easy and often results in a tragic end. As they question the nature of life, truth, God, and reality they most often rub against more powerful members of society. To make dreams into reality inevitably means that many will win but some members will lose. Of course those who lose cling to the power of their previous glory. Think of Socrates and his ethics that was designed to create an efficient society but instead ended in his poisoning.  The man was loved but his ideas were radical. 

The “who” is often replaced by the “what” through the course of societal history.  The individual philosopher may have long passed away but their thoughts and ideas continue on and are added to a greater body of knowledge. It is this body of knowledge that continues to push society to think in new and more accurate ways about their lives and the nature of the world.  Without this function society would cease to develop and grow; being forever stuck in underdeveloped perspectives.

The nature of reality is subjective to how people perceive themselves, information, and the world. The more aware we are of multiple points of view and methods of looking at the world the more accurate we become in assessing it. For example, each science tests concepts from a particular point of view. Even though each uses the scientific method the results are still subjective (less without reasoning) without viewing the results in relation to other sciences and perspectives. This subjectivity is based in the perspective of the human being and the historical perspective of the scientific approach. 

The book offers a broad overview of the major opinions offered by some of the greatest world philosophers. Philosophy helps give a broader perspective to life than that which is proposed by scientific exactness. As scientists look inward to the details, philosophy has the possibility to connect these details into a wider framework for understanding. A world of details is relatively useless without a framework to see, implement, and connect those details together. 

Some of the philosophers introduced are Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Francis Bacon, Spinoza, Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer, Herbert Spencer, and Nietzsche. The book affords a broad overview and is one of the leading books for understanding general philosophy. It is full of quotes and strong explanations of each of the particular perspectives. 

One of my favorites is Francis Bacon who is known as an empirical philosopher who tried to use reasoning to find finite elements.  He was an attorney general and a powerful statesman. In the Praise of Knowledge (1592) Bacon states, “My praise shall be dedicate to the mind itself. The mind is the man, and knowledge mind; a man is but what he knoweth…Are not the pleasures of the affections greater than the pleasures of the senses, and are not the pleasures of the intellect greater than the pleasures of the affections?...”

The book has approximately 401 pages with philosophical concepts packed in. It is a strong read for anyone who wants to understand the basics of philosophical thought in their attempt to create a greater understanding of the world around them. Combined with history the study of philosophy also helps in understand why modern man thinks the way he does. If you read enough from a variety of different sciences you may come to the conclusion that everything in the world runs according to laws and these laws define how decisions are made. To understand the perspective is to understand the future decision.

Durant, W. (1961). The story of philosophy. NY: Simon and Schuster

Pages 401

Book Review: Benedict de Spinoza-Ethics

Benedict de Spinoza was a Dutch Philosopher of Jewish descent. He spent a great deal of time reading ancient philosophy, Descartes, and Hobbs. He supported himself through grinding lenses and spent every free moment he could reading, theorizing, and writing. He so desired to maintain his intellectual independence that he turned down a regular job to work as a teacher at Heidelberg. His intellectual independence led him to some amazing theoretical discoveries that influenced philosophy, psychology, democracy, law and ethics. His two greatest works were Tractatus Theologico-Politicus and Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demostrata. 

In his work The Tractatus Theologico-Politicus  he provided a strong critique of the militant nature of Holland's ruling House of Orange. He also advocated tolerance of religions. He believed that religions could live peacefully with each other if they rose above their petty ideological debates. The problem is that people become narrowly defined by their ideologies and do not quite understand the similarities between all of these religions. 

Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata (Ethics) (1677) is modeled after Euclid’s Elements. The work entails a deduction of each ethical proposition that builds off of each other to create a methodology. They all lead back to a few axioms. The entire work is completed much like a geometric mathematical formula. He seeks an elemental approach to understanding life and the nature of existence. The work proposes a number of axioms and then provides the proofs associated with them in a list type book format. 

 His main arguments are that rationality is the highest form of freedom, all human beings live by the laws of nature, and society should enhance freedom of thought. God and nature are tied together and very much the same. All reality can be defined by mathematical principles and methods of deduction. The more we know about our world the more we know about ourselves. Pure rationality is considered perfection and this cannot happen unless one is God. More knowledge leads to higher levels of awareness. Of interest in Spinoza’s work is that all concepts and aspects of life can be deducted down to elemental principles. Furthermore, the entire universe can be represented by a formula or other method of mathematical equation. 

Certainly if we bounce around in science a little we can find a formula for a great many things. It makes one wonder that if we were to connect all formulas together through if and then statements would we come to untie the world knot. If everything could be predicted by developing accurate formulas for human nature and then connecting them into the longest formula the world has ever seen would we know everything? Perhaps no one’s brain could be so large as to complete this task. I guess that would put us above nature.  Of course you would still have the problem of an infinite space which means it would be impossible to know everything because everything is always expanding. You would need to be faster than that expansion. 

If anything I guess we should learn not to make assumptions without first looking around at the whys and why nots of any situation. If you haven’t done this analysis then you are likely limited by a number of poor assumptions. For a great majority of us to be wrong would be impossible-so we think. You can find additional explanation in each of the sections of Spinoza’s work on Ethics.

I: Of God:

The first part of the book discusses the nature of God or Ethics of God. Of particular interest in this section is the concept that God is infinite because if God was not he would be limited in power by another being of similar power. He discusses God and nature as being the same. All laws of nature are inherent part of God and we are determined by these laws. Each and everything within the world fits within this nature, is ruled by it, and is defined by it. That understanding the laws of nature may help a person better understand God. Humans are not above nature but deeply embedded within it and therefore limited by their perspective. 

Proof 13: A substance which is absolutely infinite is indivisible.

 

II: Of the Nature and Origin of the Mind:

The second section is often debated today as heavily as it was in the past. To Spinoza the mind has an idea of the body and there is no separation between mind and body. The very nature of thinking is related to having a concept of one’s body and objects in the world. Perhaps this is a concept related to self-reflection. If we do not think about ourselves then we are not conscious that we exist. It is a little like Descarte’s “I think therefore I am”. Our minds are part of nature and reflections of that nature. How we think of ideas and concepts, are representations of objects in the world and seem to be part of larger collective connection of thoughts related to understanding nature/reality. Intuition is seen as the highest form of knowledge while opinions are full of fallacies.

Proof 7: The order and connection of ideas is the same as the order and connection of things.

III: Of the Origin and Nature of the Effects:

Spinoza in this section basically sets up psychological theory. As nature is run by laws and rules so too his human nature and should not be separate from nature. The affects of passion and actions are part of nature. Morality is about understanding one’s nature and how it works within the natural environment. He appears to create an argument for the subjectivity of one’s environment and how this influences passions and in turn behavior. It is those thoughts and how we make meaning that lead to certain decisions and choices that influence our behaviors.

Proof 1: Our mind does certain things (acts) and undergoes other things, namely, insofar as it has adequate ideas, it necessarily does certain things, and insofar as it has inadequate ideas, it necessarily undergoes other things. 

IV: Of Human Bondage, or the Powers of the Affects:

In this section Spinoza talks more about the bondage of mind and emotion and the ability to create true freedom for oneself. This freedom can only come when we are able to act in any way we choose (baring immoral acts). The environment doesn’t force us to act but we act because we deem it within ourselves. He discusses the nature of false freedom whereby we are controlled by our environment and its forces and believe we are acting with a level of free will. The power to create freedom is difficult as we are most comfortable thinking only of ourselves and our own needs…which means we are not free. True freedom and goodness requires us to think of those things made of joy and positive affectivity because their affects are more powerful than those which are negative. It is a problem of limited perspective, lack of emotional intelligence, and the ability to critically think about ourselves or the world.  

Proof 18: A desire which arises from joy is stronger, other things equal, than one which arises from sadness.

V: Of the power of the Intellect, or on Human Freedom:

The last chapter is stronger than the first four. Spinoza appears to make an argument that freedom is built upon knowledge and rational thought. That a person cannot be free unless they understand themselves, nature, rational thought, emotions, and even the institutions in which they exist. He suggests democracy as the highest form of governmental freedom when and if that democracy supports the protection of people from abuse and allows for positive societal action. Democracy should support trust, individual freedoms, balance of civic interests, and rational patterns of behavior. 

Proof 6: Insofar as the mind understands all things as necessary, it has a greater power over the affects, or is less acted on by them.

 

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