Job Enrichment and Its Enhancement on Motivation, Satisfaction and Commitment

Job enrichment is a concept that entails the development of employee skills and expanding their area of work influence. However, job enrichment also includes the concepts of mastery of ones work environment which further leads to higher levels of motivation and satisfaction. Through appropriate employee development, organizations can further their business and financial interests while still meeting the needs and expectations of their employees. 

Today's organizations must deal with trends such as rapid product changes, technology adjustments, global competition, deregulation, demographic changes, and a shift to a service economy in which organizations can no longer limit themselves to job descriptions (Raza & Nawaz, 2011). Employees can learn adaptability through job enrichment by being flexible through responsibility, autonomy, achievement, work, growth, development, and recognition.

In the past job based approaches stressed that employees should complete jobs through specific work activities, obligations and accountability (Lawyer, 1993). In modern times a greater emphasis should be placed on the individual by focusing on skills, competencies and abilities (Lawler, Mohrman, & Ledford, 1992). The new focus creates a dynamic shift from the function of the job to the enhancement of the individual. The more enhanced the individuals abilities the more they can benefit the organization and weather environmental difficulties.

Job enrichment is a qualitative change to employment that increases autonomy, accurate feedback, job significance, and influence on their work environments (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Job enrichment encourages workers to learn, develop, and innovate solutions which furthers morale and satisfaction (Hackman & Lawler, 1971). As the employee learns higher levels of work mastery in a variety of arenas they become more capable in their abilities, more knowledgeable of their environment, and take greater ownership of their work. It is this knowledge that they alone are responsible for their work and have ownership of their results that leads to greater motivation (Orpen, 1979).

Adaptable employees are have a vested interest in their organization and draw a definition of their self through the work that they complete. It is this adaptability and satisfaction that furthers their commitment to achieve organizational objectives and further enhance their skills. The basic components to organizational success lay both within the leadership function and the capabilities of employees. Highly skilled employees can change with fluidity during crisis while less adapted employees must not only change their skills but also their self-identity.

A survey of 534 respondents indicated that job enrichment was associated with job motivation, job satisfaction and mildly with organizational commitment (Raza & Nawaz, 2011). The study further help cement the ideas that motivation, satisfaction and commitment are associated with mastery over ones work, autonomy, and greater knowledge of the work environment. The path to higher levels of motivation rests, in part, in the development of workers through appropriate training and development which leads to general enrichment of their capabilities.
 
Hackman, J. & Lawler, E. (1971). Effects of job redesign: a field experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 3 (1). 

Hackman, J. & Oldham, R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, pp. 250-279. 

Lawler, E. (1993). From job-based to competency-based organizations. CEO Publication G, 93-8 (228).

Lawler, E., Mohrman, S. & Ledford, G. (1992). Employee involvement and total quality management: practices and results in fortune 1000 companies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Orpen, (1979). The effects of job enrichment on employee satisfaction, motivation, involvement, and performance: a field experiment. Human Relations, 32, pp. 189-217.

Raza, M. & Nawaz, M. (2011). Impact of job enrichment on employees' job satisfaction, motivation, and organizational commitment: evidence from the public sector of Pakistan. European Journal of Social Studies, 23 (2).

The History of "Three Ships in a Gale" 1673

Three Ships in a Gale 1673

Willem van de Velde was a Dutch maritime painter in the 17th Century. His paintings focused primarily on seascape painting which later influenced such English paintings in the next century. His father and brother were also painters which influenced his choice of occupation. He stayed in Amsterdam where an economic collapse sparked a French invasion and the family moved to England. His father found work in the Queen's House at Greenwich working for Charles II.

Many of his paintings were about the open seas. "A Gale" was a painting in 1673 of Holland's naval power and trade. It is hosted at the National Gallery in London. Within the picture it is easy to see the waves washing over the fishing-smack and a frigate approaching in the background. The seas represented both ferocity as well as economic opportunities. Many investments were lost and made on the open seas. Such ships were subject to being lost at sea, attacked by other naval powers, disease, or slaughtered at port by hostile locals. This period was one of romantic danger and historical heroes. 

Dutch shipping in this period included silk, gold, copper, textiles, spices, coffee, tea and sugar. The population in Holland exploded along with the shipping from 30,000 people in 1565 to 100,000 people in 1630. The majority of workers on these ships were immigrants who were attracted to the high pay despite the risks associated. Much of the trading was between Indian and Holland.

The Golden Age of Dutch shipping existed between the 16th – 17th Centuries. At which time it began to wain as English shipping encroached on the Dutch powerhouse. The Dutch East India Company, Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, started in 1602 and ended in 1796. It was one of the first mega-corporations that held governmental powers and could wage war, imprison people, execute convicts, create money, establish colonies and even negotiate treaties. The power of this company was enormous during this time of Dutch society.

Job Motivation Field: Three Factors to Consider

“This is a pipe,” I’d have been lying!”
The Treachery of Images. René Magritte 1928

Job motivation is that intrinsic and extrinsic desire to accomplish certain goals within the workplace. It is the complex interaction of the inner and outer worlds of employees that pushes them to engage their organizations and work toward some constructive objective. Even though motivation can vary with individuals it is often in part predetermined by a nations economy, historical past, and cultural perspective (Savareike, 2011).  Yet, even with this knowledge it can be difficult for employers to create the right balance that encourages the intrinsic values to find avenues of attainment through the extrinsic mechanisms of the organization that fit within the employees understandings.

A concept called the job motivational field helps to see motivation through the perspective of the individual and allows for a stronger analysis of individualized factors. Organizations that can understand the needs and pressures of employees can better create an environment of individual self-actualization that furthers both the individuals and organizations needs. It should be understood that an organization is defined as a socio-cultural system that when highly developed is less subject to negative environmental factors and has greater creative utility of performance that fosters higher levels of revenue growth (Kvedaravicius, 2005).


The job motivation field is an accumulation of intrinsic and extrinsic factors which coincide with implicit and explicit forces that act like a magnetic field (area of influence) in enhancing motivation in the workplace (Savareikiene, 2012). The job motivation field is saturated with stimulus and opportunities as seen from the vantage point of the individual. These forces interact until the employee makes the decision to chase a particular avenue to achieve some goal.

Intrinsic factors are employee needs, values and traits while extrinsic factors take the form of an organizational profile, mission, vision, goals and corporate culture. The energy generated by such a job motivation field, through the pressures of the intrinsic and extrinsic forces, predetermines the direction and scope of employee behavior (Savareikiene, 2012). In essence, a match between individualized traits, values and needs with learned competencies, skills and knowledge will create higher levels of motivation due to the positive expectancy of attainment. Applying the motivational potentials of the organization to these concepts will create capitalization of human ability.

This concept can be broken down into three factors:

1.) Internalized traits, values, and needs
2.) Learned knowledge, skills and competencies
3.) Organizational potentials and pathways to needs fulfillment.

When the factors are in match their is a higher likelihood of successful effort through motivation. The intrinsic traits, values, and needs of the employee have matched with their learned knowledge, skills, and competencies and are manifested through appropriate organizational potentials (channels). If the needs and the skills are not in match the organizational pathway will not be used due to a lower level of expectancy. Likewise, if the employee doesn't feel pressure from their internalized values, even if they have the skill, they are unlikely to utilize the pathways.Yet when the internal needs, competencies, and the organization create an alignment, high levels of motivation can be realized. It is then only necessary to foster such motivation through an appropriate reward mechanism (pathway or potential).


Example: Jane has a need to earn a reasonable living, is social in nature, enjoys working with people and wants to earn enough money to buy a house. These traits and needs are her intrinsic motivational factors. She has learned through her working career that she is competent at comparing products, has skills in sales, and knowledge about the company. It would be expected that Jane will be motivated by her desire to purchase a house, create a reasonable lifestyle, and her social interests. She will fulfill these desires by helping customers make decisions on products, sell customers these products, and earn income and a promotion through her knowledge of the company. The more she is rewarded for her effort the more embedded the performance approach will become. She has made a match on the three factors and found a path to needs fulfillment.

Kvedaravicius, J. (2005). Organizaciju vystymosi vadyba. Kaunas: VDU leidykla.

Savareikiene, D. (2011). Darbuotoju poreikiu tenkinimu grindziamas darbo motyvacijos proceso vystymasi organizacijoje. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas: Vytauto Didziojo universiteto leidykla.

Savareikiene, D. (2012). Motyvo interpretacija motyvacijoje. Ekonomika ir vadyba: aktualijos ir perspektyvos, 1 (25). 

Priming Organizational Motivation: A partnership of mutual self-interest!

Does employee motivation elude you? Even in the most progressive organizations the nature of motivation eludes the best of managers who throw their hands in the air in sulking defeat. Properly nurtured motivational goals and objectives can be realized through practical processes within the workplace.  Part of the problem lay in their managers perspective of what motivation actually entails. Motivation should not be forced but instead finessed. Like a great fisherman the motivated employee should be attracted and encouraged to take the bait that leads to a line of development.

Employee motivation has two partners of which the first partner is the employee and the second is the organization. In essence, motivation stems from the employee but is fostered through business processes (Radovanovic & Savic, 2012). The will and the way must come together in a workplace marriage if higher performance is to be realized. Despite the benefits offered by the organization the employee is the one who must have a motivational need to put forth the effort into the appropriate pathways offered by the company.

This is why it is beneficial to recruit motivated employees who have a higher probability to use motivational processes/potentials to realize their goals through the organization. Victor Vroom (1964) states "The complex of forces that initiate and keep somebody at work in a company, that is, the motivation starts and maintains activity in the intended direction." The desire to be motivated comes from the unfulfilled needs of the employee which seeks a path of realization within the organization. Organizations that recruit employees with goals and needs can better reap the rewards of their effort through proper encouragement.

The willingness of an employee to put forth effort can be explained by something called Expectancy Theory. Expectancy Theory is based on the assumption that employees will reach a higher level of impact if there is a strong connection between effort and performance, results and rewards, personal rewards and goals (Radovanovic & Savic, 2012).  The path to employee engagement should be transparent and easy for employees to discern when compared to alternative paths that lead to disengagement. This is one reason why policies, ethical standards, processes, procedures, performance feedback and compensation need to be in proper alignment. Where there is divergence of these organizational methods there is also likely to be confusion about appropriate pathways.

The Expectancy Theory discussed the cognitive choices employees make when trying to achieve their goals. The more closely and transparent these choices are the higher the likelihood that appropriate choices will be made that benefit both the individual and the organization.  Montana and Charnov (2008) states, "This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients." Confusion, cultural rifts between management and employees, improperly designed HR functions, and poorly managed businesses will fail to clearly define proper choice within the organization. They will fail to develop human capital through the confusion of their mixed messages.

As managers throw their arms in the air and pull out the roots of their hair at the lack of employee's motivation they should consider the environment they have created as one of the potential causes of the problem. Strong recruitment and organizational processes go hand-in-hand. It is easy to assume employees are lazy, unproductive, unmotivated, and uninspired when ready made biases are easily available. The question we have to ask ourselves is, "Are we creating the right environment for mutual benefit or are we holding our employees back?"

"A good manager is a man who isn't worried about his own career but rather the careers of those who work for him. My advice: Don't worry about yourself. Take care of those who work for you and you'll float to greatness on their achievements."-  H.S.M Burns


Camilovic, S. & Vidojevic, V. (2007). Basics of human resource management. Belgrade; Tekon.

Montana, P. & Charnov, B. (2008). Management (4th Edition). Barron's Educational Series, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7641-3941-4


Radovanovic, V. & Savic, L. (2012). Motivation and job satisfaction-determinants of competitiveness. Metalurgia International, XVII (11).

Vroom, W. (1964). Work and motivation. NY: Wiley

What is Behind the Painting of "The Bull" 1647?

The Bull 1647

When is a painting just colors on canvas? Painting is a representation of life and the figures, creatures, and landscapes represent important aspects of societal living. "The Bull" is a painting that is central to farm life and animal husbandry. Yet "The Bull" is much more than a beautiful piece of artwork as it also represents something spiritual and thriving.  Without the domesticated bull it is doubtful society could produce enough food to expand and grow.

Paul Potter had a very short career in painting but during this lifetime he produced many great artistic works. He was born in the fishing village Enkhuizen and studied art from the warmth of his home. He lived with his father in Amsterdam for a while, went to the Delft for a couple of years and then to the Hague where he painted the famous work "The Bull" in 1647. After this time his career was plagued by crippling sickness and disease leaving a number of fine art works behind as a legacy.

"The Bull" was considered one of his best works and represented the noble nature of the lord of the fields and pastures.  The painting was huge measuring 8 feet 6 inches in height, by 9 feet 10 inches in width. At this time the masterpiece is still one of the most celebrated in Holland and draws thousands of visitors to the Hague Museum every year. It is seen as one of the early examples of Romanticism. Even though the painting has some apparent scale flaws it is seen as a detailed wonder with the smug indifference of the bull apparent.

The bull has a central place in the significance of human life. To the ancient Celtics the bull represented fertility, to the Druids it represented power, and to most others it conjures images of power, wealth, and luxury. In the Jewish tradition the bull is seen as harmony and provision which is represented in the symbol of the Hebrew aleph. Throughout history the bull has been a creature of mysticism and spirit that could make the most ferocious predators run out of fear.

To American farmers the bull (Bos taurus) is central to the herd of cows. Selecting the right bull allows for beneficial genetics in animal husbandry and a healthier overall flock. Bulls are often unpredictable and full of energy and require a nose ring to control effectively. They are often castrated to limit their temperament and size. Weighing 1,000-2000 lbs they can be aggressive with only 1 in 20 people attacked by a bull surviving. The bull has been known to have a central place in the economy since 2150 BC in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Cave paintings have been noted as far back as 17,000 years ago showing its companionship with the development of society.

Of course who hasn't heard the term "bull market"? Even in today's stock markets the animal maintains its charm. A bull market can be a group of bonds, currencies or commodities. The bull market is one of optimism where psychologically investors believe the value of their holdings will continue to rise. Interestingly, one can even trade in bulls. With $80 billion in U.S. cattle market value each year there is no "bull" in this masculine creature. The painting of the bull represents its importance in the 1600's and maintains its relevance today. It is projected that this castrated animal will continue to breed important contributions in the future. No pun intended.

Six Motivational Potentials Employers Should Consider

Iron Workers Noon Time

Job motivation is an important component for worker progression and organizational development. Motivation takes many forms but is often fostered through the conduit of organizational objectives. Employees seeking needs attainment search through their environments in order to find appropriate paths that create the most likely outcomes. Organizations that can create the right mechanisms for motivational expression are more likely to foster the aspirations of their employees.

Motivational potentials is a concept that entails creating pathways whereby employee motivation can meet beneficial outcomes. In organizations where there are few motivational potentials, and appropriate pathways, it is doubtful employees will come to the conclusion that additional work will result in some level of reward. Without the desire, the pathway, and the reward the employee will continue to treat work as just another mundane task to engage in throughout the day in order to maintain their lifestyle.

Motivational potentials can include the following (Heckhausen & Rheinburg, 1980):

1.) Clearly defined areas of responsibility.
2.) Employees conception of optimal work-results and appropriate measures to reach them.
3.) Consideration of employees' positive experiences with similar work-tasks.
4.) Importance of work-results for sub-dominant goals.
5.) Transparent and performance-oriented incentive systems.
6.) Opportunity of choosing between alternative extrinsic rewards.

Employees seek to own the work and its results, appropriate feedback of performance, have positive work experiences, fulfill multiple goals, trustworthy incentive programs, and meaningfulness of the rewards. To employees the environment must be worthy of their effort and there need to have appropriate opportunities to achieve once that effort is put forward. The compensation structure defines how much and what kind of effort is required for a reward.

Let us assume that Ben is an employee who desires to engage his work environment. However, his supervisor practices control versus empowerment and Ben cannot find an appropriate path to engage his work environment. The extra effort he puts forward is either unnoticed or unfairly capitalized on by his supervisor. After a few attempts at trying to benefit himself through the organization he either gives up or seeks other opportunities for employment. Ben may stay within his position for a while but is unlikely to produce much as he intuitively knows that no benefit can be obtained by offering ideas or working harder.

Ben desires to know what his responsibilities are, wants to know what is considered "strong work", wants to enjoy the tasks he does, wants to enhance his market worth, desires to understand precisely how someone receives additional compensation, and wants a choice in the type of reward he receives. If his supervisor is not transparent with Ben it is unlikely he will trust his supervisor or his workplace. He will not be willing to put forth much effort without a dynamic change to the environment. 

There are organizations that practice the assumption that workers must be controlled and discipline is an appropriate driving force to keep employees productive. Such behavior often encourages compliance but will rarely produce anything beyond low standards of productivity and engagement. Creating an appropriate atmosphere for successful alignment of personal goals with that of the organization can help provide opportunities for motivated workers to reengage their environment. In this century employees are expected to be more than a part in the machinery and should be shown the path forward. Great supervisors and managers can effectively communicate the expectations and follow through with them when they are achieved.

Heckhausen, H. & Rheinburg, F. (1980). Learning motivation in education, newly considered. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 1. pp. 7-47.

Book Review: The Worldly Philosophers by Robert Heilbroner

Have you ever wondered how the world's economic system developed? If you have then you are not alone. Between the covers of The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times, and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers you can quench your thirst for the knowledge of how both society and the economy developed hand-in-hand. Today's economic decisions rest on ideas of the economic thinkers like Adam Smith, Parson Malthus, John Maynard Keynes, Carl Marx, Joseph Schumpter and J.S. Mills.

The book moves through the historical development of society and the economic system. Each concept provides further understanding of the nature of society and the development of modern commerce. The economists chosen as subjects have created larger influences on world development and understanding. It is through this understanding that we can see why the U.S., the European Union, and China have different currencies and different spheres of economic influence.

Business owners, investors, and decision makers can benefit from understanding the underlying principles that contribute to the structure of the modern economic system. Many of the decisions companies make today are based in the vantage points of the philosophers that fostered Capitalism, Socialism, and Communism. Each of these vantage points are seen by certain populations as an ideal in society that fosters cohesion and human development. All three exist in the world today and influence the nature of business, decision making and the preferred methods of economic gain. Each of the systems have changed over time in order to avoid collapse or weather difficult times but still hold to their root principles.

The book provides a nice overview of the most influential economic thinkers. Where additional depth was needed it seemed to be lacking. Yet this is not the nature of the book as it appears to be offering a broad overview of the concepts versus in-depth analysis. A more logical development of concepts from the earliest to the latest concepts would be of great benefit. Furthermore, organizing the index around the economist versus around broad concepts would provide additional benefit as a resource. It is worth the purchase price.

Heilbroner, R. (1999). The worldly philosophers: the lives, times, and ideas of the great economic thinkers (Seventh Edition). NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86214-9

Price: $12.24

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Enablers Produce Organizational Results

Enablers are an asset to any workplace that seeks to solve market problems and continue to progress through environmental difficulties. People whom we consider to be enablers use multiple resources from the workplace in order to develop both the organization and themselves. They have the amazing ability to maintain motivation and capitalize on resources if given an opportunity to succeed.

Enablers are able to connect resources to find solutions that help in encouraging business imperatives. At times they utilize the skills of other people and other times they use existing resources in unique and new methods. The skill of the enabler is in the encouragement of higher levels of organizational attainment.

Enablers achieve results for organizations, employees and society (Ehrlich, 2006). Their approaches are divided into 1.) Enablers that produce 2.) Results.

Enabling Factors:

-leadership
-people
-policy and strategy
-processes

Result Factors:

-people results
-customer results
-society results
-key performance results

Enablers and their results contribute to innovation and learning within organizations. Like a cyclical process the use of the enabler factors produce beneficial results that are tied to the process of learning. Understanding how the use of each component produces a specific result helps such decision makers to create ever higher levels of organizational alignment. Enablers continue to learn as they pull resources together and observe the end results which affords them increasing skills in managing the workplace.

Let us take an example that may tie the concept together. An enabler needs to solve some organizational problem. He/She uses leadership, people within the organization, policies, strategy, and processes to achieve specific results that improve upon products or services with people, customers, society or predefined goals. Each time an enabler tries to pull together various factors to produce specific results he/she learns how the components work together. With each subsequent trial the learning process continues. 

An enabler is a person who has the motivation and desire to solve problems within an organization. This makes the enabler unique when compared to many colleagues who prefer to maintain minimal performance standards. You can determine who is an enabler by their desire to continue to think about and develop methods of solving organizational problems.

Ehrlich, C. (2006). The EFQM-Model and work motivation. Total Quality Management, 17 (2).

Economic Art as Represented in The Merchant Georg Gisze

The Merchant Georg Gisze 1532

The painting entitled The Merchant Georg Gisze, or Der Kaufmann Georg Gisz, depicts a wealthy Steelyard merchant on the North bank of the Thames in London. The Steelyard merchants banned together in order to avoid the power of the princes, pirates, losses in shipping, and other factors that often impact the success of economic gain during this time period. When the artist Hans Holbein finished the work for Georg Gisze in 1532 he was unlikely to be aware that his work would be part of the pantheon of masterpieces.

The Merchants of the Steelyard (der Strahlhof) were first known as the Hanseatic League at their establishment in London Knotor of the year 1320. Eventually they developed their own walled community with a church, warehouse, guards, offices and houses. The league was a defensive pack of guilds, connected to other economic outposts, that protected their trade on the Baltic and North Sea.

At this time in history the world was a very dangerous place as cities could be sacked by enemy ships and armies. What made the Hanseatic League interesting was its Germanic roots as well as its independent loose collection of near democratic associations of over one hundred cities. These cities were independent of local princes and swore allegiance only to the Holy Roman Empire. In this league each city maintained an armed garrison that would come to the aid of other cities when called upon.

The artist Hans Holbein the younger was born in 1497 and passed in 1543. He was considered one of the first artists to work in the Northern Renaissance style. He combined Gothic and humanism styles to create unique masterpieces. He contributed to art, book design and jewelry development. Much of his work was conducted on portraits of important people and he received considerable notoriety for his work. This painting at the steelyard was finished during a time when Hans traveled to England in search of work.

The painting itself is a curiosity in that it was finished for Georg Gisze's potential upcoming marriage. Within the picture there are scales, letters, books and other items commonly used within the period for merchants. It is believed that a few optical and scale issues are apparent within the objects of the work. The vase being too close to the edge of the table represents the instability of the world. The letter in his hand is from a family member further indicating the difficulties of family separation despite the wealth of such a merchant. One can only guess if the mistakes were derived intentionally, from the perspective of the merchant, or the painter.

Conflict Modeling: Predicting and Resolving International Conflict

The Meeting of Leo the Great and Attila

Raphael 1531 Painting

All for Love!

Actual Event 452

More at Medievalists

Conflict models are often used successfully in the workplace, labor relations, and on an international scale to understand conflict. Such models focus on the prediction and resolution of conflict in order to reduce its devastating impact. In international affairs these models help to frame a greater understanding of the components that influence the decisions which lead to conflict and war. The following article will discuss current and possible future models of conflict prediction.

Modeling conflict often takes a theoretical and a mathematical approach. Once the theoretical components have been found they are written into mathematical models. Such models use regression analysis and other statistical approaches to predict when and where conflicts will occur. The more accurate the model is the more likely it will be able to validly predict potential conflict before eruption.

Conflict Models:

Pondy Conflict Model: The Pondy Conflict Model attempted to synthesize the relationship between the personality and structural components through understanding competition over scare resources, an attempt to achieve autonomy, and divergence of goals (Pondy, 1967). According to Deutsch & Leweiki the Pondy Conflict Model is able to see the following elements (1970):
A.) antecedents conditions
B.) latent conflict
C.) perceived conflict; leading to
D.) manifest conflict
C.) conflict aftermath
A criticism of the model is based on the resource considerations being a root cause of conflict and ignores values, religion, or social stress as factors.

Ecosystemic Complexity Theory of Conflict (ECTC): Assumptions of ECTC include 1.) conflict exists in a nonlinear fashion; 2.) conflict exists in a multi-layered social arena; 3). human behavior is unpredictable and difficult to control; 4.) patterns emerge for conflict improvement; and 5.) avoidance of control mechanisms and encouragement of adaption and change (Brack, Lassiter, Hill, & Moore, 2011). The theory has some strength because it is possible to break apart the components and allow for higher levels of analysis. Such a theory has been applied successfully to explaining the patterns to the Cuban Missile Crisis and its back channel communication. It further highlights the concepts that adaptation and change help to reduce conflict as patterns and behaviors change to conflicting conditions. The theory can be criticized for placing too little emphasis on the beneficial aspects of control mechanisms that can influence decision-making and behavior.

Spatial Models: Close proximity, in addition to other factors, increases the likelihood that conflict will arise (Ward & Kirby, 1987). This model helps to predict how conflict (i.e. WWII) spread throughout the region. With appropriate distance the potential for future conflict can be reduced. However, this model works well with unsophisticated groups but does not consider the significant improvement in logistics and telecommunications over the past few decades. Such models spread based upon communication and transference of ideas. Likewise, economic conditions and governmental factors may impact local regions.

Game-Theoretical Models: Commonly called Game Theory each player pursues a course of action in order to maximize their opportunities and advantages in pursuit of a particular goal (Glenn, Johnson, Kimmel & Wedge, 1970). Under this model the more information, research, and knowledge the players have the better the choices and decisions. The conflict ends when one side is limited in choices and has considerable risk of loss if another move is made.

Neurological-Conflict Models: Neurological models bring forward the concept that conflict is rooted in the social, neurological, and psychological factors of understanding and decision making. Through such decision-making analysis it is possible to predict and resolve international conflict (Kerman, 1965). Conflict becomes minimized when both parties have similar vantage points and shared understandings or interests.

Critical Race Theory of Conflict (CRT):  The theory makes two assumptions which include 1.) race is the cause of conflict and is embedded in society's fabric; and 2.) law and racial power are tied together (Gotanda, 1995). Criticism of the theory lies in its over emphasis in all aspects racial as the cause of conflict while using little evidence. Such a theory would be useless in such societies that do not have diversity and would be inappropriate in a post racial society where democratic principles maintain inclusiveness. Certainly conflict has many more causes than skin color as can be seen during civil wars where the same race engages in inter-conflict.


Each model has some advantages and disadvantages when used in predicting potential conflict or finding appropriate resolutions. Such models often help to explain interpersonal conflict between two persons, organizations, or nations. As long as there is imperfection and inaccuracy in the process there is a benefit in proposing new models.

Morton Deutsch (1973) indicates that conflict is a result of opposing goals, claims, beliefs, values, wishes, actions, feelings, etc... Under such conflicts it is the difference in values that further causes problems and issues between two entities. Such conflict is often derived from a person's assumptions about "how things should be".  These assumptions can lead to forcing one's "reality" on the other. As we know forcing one's will can be an expensive and costly proposition and therefore should be used as a last resort in cases of extreme importance.

Conflict can also be seen in a relational context of history, actions, and beliefs that eventual lead to clash (Coleman, et. al. 2012). Thus, conflict is a psycho-social event that results from a continuum of activity between the entities involved. The motivation of conflict arises over time as the parts interact and socialize but maintain their separate identities. Historical self-identities of the entities involved can also lead to a level of conflict if their root perceptions and self-perceptions are wrong.

Reviewing literature for the development of Me-conomics Theory it is possible that basic concepts from other sources can be applied to an explanatory model of predicting and preventing conflict. Me-conomics is the study of the socialized self within an economic system. This vantage point includes understanding the values and perspectives of employees as it relates to their cognitive processes, socialized root value systems, and their motivation to achieve rewards.


Like Clark Hull's Theory of Motivation, which sees employee motivation as a function of drive and habit B=f(DxH), the Me-conomic model of conflict sees the motivation for conflict from the relationship of the differences of values between two entities, the economic value of the gain or loss resulting from the conflict, and the amount of antagonistic discourse between the two entities.

The potential for economic clash can be seen as a function of the difference in values related to methods of needs attainment, the economic value of the transaction(s) and the anxiety level of the relationship. This could be denoted as EC=Function (DV x  EV x AL) using the factors of Economic Conflict (EC), Difference of Values (DV), Economic Value (EV) and  Anxiety Level (AL). It is possible to represent this relationship as the following mathematical equation.

 EC=f(DVxEVxAL)

Difference of Values (DV): These are the root assumptions and values that people have about themselves or the society they live within. When two entities have dramatically different self-perceptions and root value systems they are unlikely to come to the same conclusions about certain events. Therefore, this difference creates whole new patterns of thought that are radically different and begin the highlight the differences of the entities involved.

Economic Value (EV): This is the value of the commodity or social worth of having a conflict. Two entities engaged in a conflict might be fighting about relationships, jobs, money, land, resources or anything else. The value must have high importance to engage in the conflict. Few would engage in costly and risky conflicts for items that have little to no value. 

Anxiety Level (AL): Anxiety levels are those personal and social anxieties that are a result of maintaining either self-image or ensuring that social parties are satisfied. As the public discourse rises the anxiety levels are likely to rise with it. This is one of the reasons why the media will be flooded with news about the atrocities of the actions of a nation or two school age boys will shout back and forth before a conflict results. The more the parties invest in the act the more pressure to engage in it.

This can be highlighted in the examples below:

Example 1: Two nations have a disagreement over an important and rare commodity which could be worth billions of dollars in the short-run and hundreds of billions of dollars in economic value in the future. The type of commodity isn't as important as its perceived value. Both countries adhere to different religious and social systems and see the other nation as intrusive, an outsider, and ethnocentric (i.e. culture clash). The anxiety level between the two nations has been rising for years through political rhetoric, media reporting, and ideological grandstanding. The high levels of different value systems, the potential for loss or gain of the commodity, and the anxiety level greatly raises the potential for such a conflict. In this case anxiety can be seen as that social and personal anxiety that pressures the subject to act. Sometimes this can be experienced through the media, financial supporters, or societal pressure.

To reduce the potential for conflict in such a situation would mean negotiating a mutually agreeable contract of the commodity, listening to and sharing perspectives, and reducing the political rhetoric. As each factor decreases so does the likelihood of a repeat conflict. For example, even if an entity disagrees with another over some value laden course of action the potential for conflict is much lower when acting alone then when there is a combination of value differences, economic incentives, and high public discourse to engage in the conflict.

Example 2: The economy has suffered some recent declines and revenue is hard to achieve. Organizational profit margins are on the decline. Unionized employees have become accustomed to incremental increases in wages every time the employment contract is signed. This is a direct result of two decades of economic expansion of markets. However, executives are now feeling pressure, due to market constraints, to reduce overall costs and increase productivity. The differences between management and employee values on methods of needs attainment and wealth distribution, limited resources available, and increased politicking on both sides of the isle are likely to create high levels of anxiety.

To resolve this issue is difficult but not impossible. Focusing closely on non-financial needs of employees, offering economic opportunities for individual goal attainment, helping leaders of both sides "save face", and sharing perspectives can minimize those catalysts that can cause a strike or lockout. What would be a benefit in this situation is a frank discussion on solutions to the financial stress and offering rewards in return for productivity. Such revenue sharing can be individualized or collectivized by the organization's profits (i.e. profit sharing, incentives, bonuses, decision making committees, or stock options in lieu of immediate compensation). Changing the vantage point to one of collaboration, economic opportunities and shared benefits are a start but doesn't begin to address this complex issue.

Conflict modeling is never a perfect solution. To present there are no models with 100% accuracy. In any conflict there are hundreds and thousands of factors that lead to the first eruption. Yet each of these factors are often grouped and statistically analyzed on a micro or macro scale to determine their relevance to the prediction process. Until a more valid conflict model has been developed we will still be subject to surprises.

Brack, G., Lassiter, P., Hill, M. & Moore, S. (2011). Ecosystemic complexity theory of conflict. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 50 (1).

Coleman, et. al. (2012). A situated model of conflict in social relationships. Negotiation Journal, 28 (1). 

Deutsch, M. & Leweiki, R. (1970). Locking in: effects during a game of chicken. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 14 (3).


Glen, E., Johnson, R., Kimmel, P. & Wedge, B (March, 1970). A cognitive interaction model to analyze culture conflict in international relations. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 14 (4).

Gotanda et al, (1995) Critical Race Theory: Key Writings That Formed the Movement. New Press. Introduction.

Kelman, H. (1965). International behavior: a social-psychological analysis. Irvington Pub. 15B082900275.

Pondy, L. (1967). Organizational conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 12 (2).

Ward, M. & Kirby, A. (1987). Reexamining spatial models of international conflict. Annals of Association of American Geographers, 77 (2).

Book Review: Choice Theory

Originally purchasing this book for inclusion in research it became obvious upon receipt that Choice Theory was not directly related to employment, management, and worker choice. Even though it did contain some references to these useful topics its benefit lay in a greater insight into control dynamics at both work and home. Choice Theory is a book written by Doctor William Glasser and puts within the family, educational, and career context the concept of personal freedom of choice.  Who doesn’t love choice?

The book does create a deeper understanding of workplace relationships if applied appropriately to key management concepts. If we offer more beneficial choices, than edicts or unruly demands, we will be able to foster additional opportunities for employee motivation. Control based management culture destroys motivation and innovation, creates resentment, and encourages a culture of resistance.  As most of us are aware resistance is costly, develops waste within the system, and destroys employee-management relationships. Knowing what we say, how we say it, and why we say it is an important management skill.  When the organization provides a framework for positive choice the likelihood of productive behaviors become more common as the employee has a personal stake in the choices they make.  Do you own the choice if you make it?

Let us see how this may apply in the working world. Employee's make choices all the time whether or not we agree with them. They choose to come into work, choose to work slow, or choose to be productive. Yet even with these choices there are only so many options.  At times employees can even choose to perform so poorly that they rightfully earn discipline. Other times alternative factors outside of their control may be the problem. For example, can we truly blame an employee if they were trained improperly, had poor management, or were given false information? However, positive discipline assumes that the very purpose of the disciplinary process is to curb and document unwanted behavior. There are options to the standard disciplinary process which may include performance improvement processes, training in lieu of discipline, and coaching opportunities. At times it can be beneficial for an employee to make a choice between two options so that they own the result. After implementing options for development they both legally and morally own the disciplinary process thereafter regardless of whether or not they agree. As a manager you have offered options, focused on improvement, and provided additional opportunities for documentation. The employee simple made the choice not to adhere to their employment contract.

The book is easy to read and cleanly written. It is focused in its genre as self-help but the principles could easily apply to managers as well. In its 340 pages it moves from a discussion of human needs to practical application of the theory.  There are plenty of examples provided for those who need to envision how such a theory works in their life.  It should be stated that this theory has some weaknesses as it ignores a number of modern non-choice causes of behavior. However, the majority of the principles apply to healthy employees and individuals. 

Cost: $9-12

Blog Rating: 3 out of 5

Reference:  Glasser, W. (1999). Choice theory, a new psychology of personal freedom. HarperCollins.

Choice Theory Resource:Wikipedia

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